Three Approaches to Vocabulary Acquisition

3 Series: Early Vocabulary Development, Exploring Early Vocabulary, and Talking
by Laureate (R), Mary Sweig Wilson, PhD, & Bernard J. Fox, M.S.

	Laureate offers 3 series of programs to help children and adults build early developing vocabulary. Each series uses the same core vocabulary of nouns and verbs, yet provides a different training environment. Both linguistic and social knowledge are critical to the development of communicative competence. Humans have an innate capacity to acquire linguistic knowledge. Given an adequate social environment, the normal child acquires language with no apparent effort. This is not the case for the person with developmental disabilities. Even the acquisition of an initial lexicon or vocabulary is problematic. Laureate publishes three series of programs that help children and adults with developmental disabilities build a core vocabulary. Each series uses the same 100 nouns and 40 verbs, yet provides three unique approaches to receptive and expressive vocabulary development. Early Vocabulary Development Series: First Words, First Words II, and First Verbs provide highly-structured, receptive tutorial training of the 100 early developing nouns and 40 verbs in the core lexicon. These programs are ideal for learners who are easily distracted because instruction is very focused. Words are presented in isolation or with one other picture on the screen. These programs provide the consistent, controlled instruction that many learners need to succeed in acquiring an initial vocabulary. Exploring Early Vocabulary Series: Exploring First Words, Exploring First Words II, and Exploring First Verbs are designed for learners who need repetition but can work within a less structured learning environment. These programs use rich, full-screen scenes to encourage open-ended exploration and collaborative learning. In addition to the core 140 word vocabulary trained in these programs, many more nouns and verbs are available for users to explore. Talking Series: Talking Nouns I, Talking Nouns II, and Talking Verbs provide opportunities to use the core vocabulary expressively. Activities are provided for exploring categorization, picture identification, and picture matching. A two level interactive communication module helps learners develop expressive production, exposes them to grammatically correct utterances, encourages requesting behavior, and develops conversational turn-taking. The Talking Series also can serve to introduce someone to augmentative communication. Early Vocabulary Development Series: A Structured Individualized Approach To Vocabulary Training The 3 vocabulary training programs in The Early Vocabulary Development Series, First Words, First Words II, and First Verbs, each have five training levels and a test level. The instructional format is similar across programs so children and adults with severe\profound disabilities can move easily among the programs. Persons with cognitive functioning levels of as low as 6 months can be introduced to the first two levels of the programs. The higher levels can be used for receptive vocabulary training with persons whose cognitive functioning level is above 9 months of age. Normally developing children usually acquire the vocabulary covered in the programs by 24 months of age. In determining the content for The Early Vocabulary Development Series, we turned to normal development sequences for guidance. Sequencing the content of intervention programs according to normal development patterns facilitates the induction of linguistic structures. The first words children speak are usually nouns (Benedict 1979; Greenfield & Smith 1976; MacNamara 1972; Nelson 1973) followed by verbs which are acquired both somewhat later and more slowly. Although referential nouns are observed to emerge in the speech of young children before verbs, research has shown that verbs are comprehended as early as nouns (Smith 1985). The acquisition of a verb lexicon takes longer, however, because it requires a more complex linguistic mapping onto perceptual reality than does the acquisition of words for concrete objects. Children perceive relations that are encoded as predicates as early as they do concrete objects, but the application of a lexical item is more complex for verbs than for nouns. The relative abstractness and arbitrariness of relational terms across languages as opposed to the stability of referential terms can account for the slower acquisition of a verb lexicon. Further, verbs can be used in a greater variety of contexts than nouns. Hence the child can use a few verbs to encode a wide range of concepts (Gentner 1978). Although verbs appear later than referential nouns in early lexicons, studies suggest that some verbs are comprehended even at the early one word stage. We therefore encourage the use of all three programs from the beginning. To ensure that users are learning that words are abstract symbolic entities and not labels for things and actions, all three programs use two exemplars for each vocabulary item. The instructional approach of The Early Vocabulary Development Series emphasizes the importance of initial receptive training. Language intervention programs have stressed the importance of first providing receptive training (Bricker & Bricker 1974; Miller, 1977; Miller & Yoder, 1972, 1974; Wilson, 1972, 1976, 1977). First Words and First Words II receptively train 100 nouns. First Verbs provides systematic receptive training on 40 verbs using two exemplars for each verb. The 35 action verbs can be animated. The pictorial presentation of the verbs statically and in action, together with the spoken word, highlights the relationship between the perceptual-cognitive aspects of the verb and its lexical representation. When using one of The Early Vocabulary Development Series programs, you first choose the level of instruction from among the following: 1. Noun (Verb) Identification: A picture appears on the screen and the computer asks, "What's this? (What's/he doing?)" Any switch interaction causes the computer to identify the noun (verb). 2. Introductory Training: One picture appears mid-screen, accompanied by verbal instruction identifying it. The picture then moves left or right. When you are asked to "Show me the ______ (Find ______)" you must choose the picture. A lively animated creature provides visual cuing and reinforcement. 3. Initial Training: A picture appears midscreen accompanied by instruction. The picture then moves to the right or left and an additional picture appears next to it. You are asked to identify one of them. Visual reinforcement and cuing are given. 4. Intermediate Training: At this level, instruction is provided when the picture locates midscreen but the animated creature does not provide cuing when the picture relocates. Once again, you are asked to select one of the pictures. 5. Advanced Training: On this level, only feedback is used as an instructional component. Two pictures appear on the screen and the user is asked to identify one of them on the basis of a verbal request alone. 6. Test: Pairs of pictures are presented with instructions to "Find the ____." No feedback is provided following a response. The Apple II series version also includes an instructional game that familiarizes the user with the computer while training cause and effect and turn-taking. After the appropriate instructional level has been chosen, the user selects the vocabulary. In the nouns programs the words are grouped by category to facilitate generalization. Children as young as 1;0 have shown a knowledge of categories (Ross 1980; Rescorla 1981). Basic categories with perceptual similarities among them can probably be learned through exposure to exemplars alone (Daehler, Perlmutter, & Myers 1976; Horton & Markman 1980). Laureate's programs give you the ability to determine lesson parameters including how the person will interface with the program as well as setting lesson options such as response time, text on or off, and criterion to end the lesson. The programs collect lesson data and records can be printed out or stored for later review. The lesson summary includes performance data on individual words and also includes the parameter settings chosen. If a person has difficulty with a lesson, the instructor can try different parameter settings to ascertain the best ones for each particular client. Choosing an appropriate interface is critical to the successful use of the programs. A wide variety of input devices can be used with The Early Vocabulary Development Series. In the Single Switch mode, you can use any key on the keyboard, the mouse buttons, the entire surface of the TouchWindow or a single switch. While scanning requires only a single switch entry, the concept of indicating a response when the box is around the picture is cognitively too advanced for many persons who could benefit from the training. We recommend that scanning be used only with those persons who must use a single switch. For most users, you will want to select the TouchWindow or touch sensitive monitor option. The most intuitive way for a person to interact with a vocabulary program is to point. By using a touch sensitive screen, a person can touch the picture in question. With few exceptions, you can train a person to use this form of input faster than any other device. The receptive training programs in The Early Vocabulary Development Series can be used with a broad range of children and adults with language impairments who are functioning in the 6 to 24 month range. The programs are especially appropriate for persons with mental retardation and/or autism. Exploring Early Vocabulary Series: Exploratory Learning And Discovery This new series of programs takes an entirely different approach to receptive vocabulary acquisition. Exploring First Words, Exploring First Words II, and Exploring First Verbs were designed for clients who need repetition but can work within a less structured learning environment. These programs use rich, full-screen scenes to encourage open-ended exploration and provide minimally structured tutoring. In both explore and identify modes, data are collected and can be printed out or saved. The programs are especially appropriate for children. They give them the opportunity to explore and select early developing vocabulary items in natural settings, while at the same time strengthening their vocabulary and categorization skills. Large engaging objects and lively animation make these programs easy to use, entertaining, and appropriate for children with a wide range of abilities. With these programs, cooperative learning often emerges spontaneously as children with more highly developed computer and language skills delight in assisting those at earlier stages of development. Both Exploring First Words and Exploring First Words II have 10 simple, engaging scenes which let clients discover nouns and their descriptions in natural settings. Exploring First Verbs has 8 exciting scenes which illustrate each verb action with animation. All three programs have reinforcement animation routines that can be turned off or on. Similarly, teachers can choose to have the answers cued or not in the identify mode. These programs can work as a follow-up to The Early Vocabulary Development Series. The programs will introduce known vocabulary in new settings as well as introduce the user to new nouns and verbs. The Exploring Series may provide the only early vocabulary instruction many children with specific language impairments (SLI) need. The programs' exploratory environment, which still provides repetition, learning support, and reinforcement, may offer all the structure that is needed for SLI children to acquire new vocabulary items. The Exploring Early Vocabulary Series programs are ideal for use in inclusionary preschool settings where children are free to interact alone or together with software. Children on IEPs who have acquired an initial core vocabulary using The Early Vocabulary Development Series can show off their word knowledge to their peers. Together they can build necessary vocabulary competence through collaborative learning. The data collection feature of these programs means that teachers know what items children have gone through whether they have been exploring or identifying vocabulary. Like The Early Vocabulary Development Series, The Exploring Series uses a receptive approach to vocabulary acquisition. The third group of programs in the Talking Series can be used for expressive communication. The Talking Series: Building Expressive Communication And Acquiring Skills For Using Augmentative Devices Once a person has established a core vocabulary of around 50 words, we introduce them to The Talking Series: Talking Nouns I, Talking Nouns II, and Talking Verbs. Talking Nouns and Talking Nouns II are designed to develop the active use of referential nouns while Talking Verbs encourages verb use. The programs use the same vocabulary trained in the receptive programs in The Early Vocabulary Development Series. Recent emphasis on pragmatics, or the use of language in social contexts, has led clinicians to a greater appreciation of the importance of language facilitation as well as language instruction (Conant & Budoff 1984; McCormick 1986). Language competence requires the acquisition of both linguistic rules and conversational competence. The programs in The Talking Series utilize picture/word templates which fit over the TouchWindow placed on a table top and let the user "talk" by simply touching the appropriate keys. The new versions of the programs also provides mouse and single switch access. The following activities are available on The Talking Series programs: Interactive Communication: This activity offers two options. With Single Touch Activation, the computer says each word as it is touched on the template. If a picture of a noun or verb is selected, a corresponding picture appears on the screen. With Sequenced Activation, the computer speaks only after a phrase or sentence has been constructed. The program automatically includes the correct article or verb form so that every phrase or sentence spoken is grammatically correct. Picture Matching: A picture appears on the monitor screen and you are asked to touch the corresponding picture on the template. This activity challenges visual discrimination skills. Picture Identification: The computer asks you to find a word and you must touch the corresponding picture on the template. Use this activity to reinforce vocabulary comprehension skills. Nouns by Category: This activity provides practice in noun categorization. Five nouns from the same category appear on the screen and you are asked to find them on the template. (Not available on Talking Verbs) The Interactive Communication activities on The Talking Series programs are the most important ones. They were designed to facilitate the development of conversational skills by providing an interactive environment for language discovery and communication exchange. Perhaps the primary role the Interactive Communication activities can play is as facilitators in the development of conversational competence (Dore 1986). Children with language impairments, or those who are nonverbal, experience limitations in the quantity and/or quality of their utterances. When an alternative output mode to spoken language is provided, these children are encouraged to talk. By providing tools which can be used dynamically in a communication dyad, the development of conversational competence is encouraged. Dialogues can be carried out using The Talking Series programs as the only communication output mode. Alternatively, the conversation dyad can include both computer speech output and human speech. Gesture can also be used in the communication dyad. The two activation options in the Interactive Communication activity allow you to work on different aspects of developing communication competence. Choose Single Touch Activation if you are introducing a client to The Talking Series programs as conversation tools. This activity creates a rich environment for turn-taking within the caregiver/teacher-child dyad. You can instruct the child while you participate in turn-taking with an enjoyable tool. This option is an ideal choice as a focus for incidental language teaching. The Single Touch Activation option is also appropriate for use with a motorically impaired child whose language competence is such that s/he could generate multi-morpheme utterances if s/he could speak. Since sentences are not constrained in this option, the child can play with any sequence of words. The Sequenced Activation option provides a very different communication environment than the Single Touch Activation. Utterances are not spoken until a grammatically correct sequence has been generated. Since sentences are constrained to always be correct, the child can't possibly be grammatically wrong. By discovering which key sequences work to produce sentences, the user learns to produce grammatically correct utterances to encode various thoughts. Within a communication dyad, the caregiver/teacher can encourage the use of longer and more varied utterances by using the template for modeling as well as expansion. You can facilitate the development of conversational competence through dynamic turn-taking exchanges. The Talking Series programs are ideal for training the skills a client will need to use a dedicated augmentative communication device. There are distinct advantages to using these programs to develop augmentative skills. One is the cost savings. Compared to buying and using a dedicated device to train necessary skills, The Talking Series programs offer a very cost-effective alternative. In our experience, the programs are also useful in shedding a better light on our clients' true capabilities. This helps ensure that when a dedicated device is purchased for the client it will be the right one. When the clients do get their own dedicated devices, they have the skills necessary to use them for communication purposes much more quickly than if they have to learn all the skills on the device itself. With versions of the programs that include the single-switch option, all candidates for dedicated devices can use The Talking Series programs to develop needed operational and communicative skills. The programs in The Early Vocabulary Development Series, The Exploring Series, and The Talking Series can be used to introduce persons with severe/profound language delays to the world of words. Use First Words, First Words II, and First Verbs to receptively train a core 140 word vocabulary. The Exploring Series is ideal for those who can acquire new vocabulary in a less structured environment or who have already mastered much of the vocabulary using The Early Vocabulary Development Series. When the child or adult with whom you are working has begun mastering words, introduce him or her to expressive language opportunities using Talking Nouns I, Talking Nouns II, and Talking Verbs. Used together, the programs in The Early Vocabulary Development Series, The Exploring Series, and The Talking Series help to improve the communication competence of persons with disabilities. References 1. Benedict, H. (1979). Early lexical development: Comprehension and production. Journal of Child Language, 6, 183-200. 2. Bricker, W., & Bricker, D. (1974). An early language training strategy. In R. Schiefelbusch & L. Lloyd (Eds.), Language perspectives - Acquisition, retardation and intervention. Baltimore: University Park Press. Daehler, M., Perlmutter, M., & Myers, N. (1976). Equivalence of pictures and objects for very young children. Child Development, 47, 96-102. 3. Dore, J. (1986). The development of conversational competence. In R. Schiefelbusch (Ed.), Language competence: Assessment and intervention. San Diego, CA: College Hill Press, Inc. 4. Gentner, D. (1978). On relational meaning: The acquisition of verb meaning. Child Development, 49, 988-998. 5. Greenfield, P. & Smith, J. (1976). The structure of communication in early language development. New York: Academic Press. 6. Horton, M. & Markman, E. (1980). Developmental differences in the acquisition of basic and superordinate categories. Child Development, 51, 708-719.MacNamara, J. (1972). The cognitive basis of language learning in infants. Psychological Review, 79, 1-13. 7. Miller, J. (1977). On specifying what to teach: The movement from structure, to structure and meaning, to structure and meaning and knowing. Educational programming for the severely/profoundly handicapped. Reston, VA: The Council for Exceptional Children. 8. Miller, J. & Yoder, D. (1972, April). On developing the content for a language teaching program. Mental Retardation, 10, 9-11. 9. Miller, J. & Yoder, D. (1974). An ontogenetic language teaching strategy for retarded children. In R. Schiefelbusch & L. Lloyd (Eds.), Language Perspectives-acquisition, retardation, and intervention, Baltimore: University Park Press. 10. Nelson, K. (1973). Some evidence for the cognitive primacy of categorization and its functional basis. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 19, 21-39.Rescorla, L. (1981). Category development in early language. Journal of Child Language, 8, 225-238. 11. Ross, G. (1980). Concept categorization in 1-2 year olds. Developmental Psychology, 16, 391-396. 12. Wilson, M. (1972). Wilson initial syntax program. Cambridge, MA: Educators Publishing Service.Wilson, M. (1976a). The Wilson expanded syntax program. Cambridge, MA: Educators Publishing Service. 13. Wilson, M. (1976b). Prescriptive analysis of language disorders-receptive syntax program. Cambridge, MA: Educators Publishing Service. 14. Wilson, M. (1977). Syntax remediation: A generative grammar approach to language development. Cambridge, MA: Educators Publishing Service